Bibliography of Mineralogy-Related Works for Children from the Hungarian Enlightenment Period (1777–1830)

Róbert Oláh*

*Educational District Centre of Cegléd – Kolping Catholic Primary School and Vocational Secondary School in Nagykőrös – Arany János Cultural Non-Profit Ltd. of Nagykőrös; Cegléd – Nagykőrös; olahr88@gmail.com

• Megjelenés dátuma: 2026. 08. 03.
• Hivatkozási minta:
  OLÁH R. (2026): Bibliography of Mineralogy-Related Works for Children from the Hungarian Enlightenment Period (1777–1830). TQ Strata 4, 24–36.

I warmly recommend it to my children, Kamilla and Robika

Introduction and Objectives

To date, no systematic, detailed presentation, complete with bibliographic data, has been produced of mineralogical works, or books with mineralogical content, from the period of the Hungarian Enlightenment. The aim of the present study is to compile an analysis that not only provides more detailed information on individual books, but also, through the comparison of their relevant content, offers insight into certain stages of the historical development of Hungarian Earth sciences. These publications interacted with one another, thereby fostering generations in whom the seeds of scientific curiosity were planted and who later distinguished themselves in research; this process itself forms an essential basis for a better understanding of the period under discussion.

To address this gap, our goal is to expand the chronology of Hungarian mineralogy. In addition, we aim to provide a reliable bibliographic foundation not only for the findings of renowned 19th-century researchers but also for the early years of their careers.

Many of our compatriots became passionate investigators of the inanimate world through these volumes. This remains the case today, at the threshold of the third millennium.

Problems in Defining Temporal Boundaries

It is difficult to define the Hungarian Enlightenment precisely in terms of time and space. This is because this process marks not only the conclusion of a long, multi-phase series of historical events, but also the beginning of a new era. It cannot be examined solely within a historical framework; rather, it must also be analyzed with the assistance of other disciplines. If cultural considerations are taken into account, chronological boundaries may be defined from a literary-historical perspective, marked by the publication of The Tragedy of Ágis (Ágis tragédiája, 1772), the landmark work of the “hermit of Bihar”, György Bessenyei (1746/1747–1811), officer of the Imperial Guard, poet and playwright. Breaking with ancient traditions, Bessenyei placed Hungarian national identity at the centre of his tragedies (Pintér 1931). The end of this literary period is marked by the end of the early foreign materialist philosophers’ activities, which strongly influenced the development of Hungarian literature from the end of the 17th century. This period boundary coincides with the emergence of Romanticism and Classicism. In my opinion, 1820 does not mark a sharp dividing line in this context, even though it was around this time that Romanticism, liberalism, the national awakening, and the beginnings of European revolutionary movements emerged. This is especially true when we consider, for example, the composition of the Hungarian national anthem (Himnusz) in 1823 or the publication of Mihály Vörösmarty’s (1800–1855) epic poem Zalán’s run (Zalán futása, 1825), which already bears the hallmarks of early Romanticism.

From a historical perspective, defining chronological boundaries is even more challenging. By 1767, the Habsburg absolutist regime – ahead of many other European states – was showing a commitment to reform. The reforms initiated were not only continued by Joseph II (II. József, 1741–1790), but he also consciously prepared for them earlier: in 1763, long before the beginning of his reign, he authored Rêveries politiques (Political Reveries), in which he formulated a guiding principle relevant to our subject with regard to reforms: “this unlimited power is neither possible for a state to be fortunate, nor for a ruler to accomplish anything great” (Beales 1980). Likewise, the historical end of the period cannot be defined by the publication of the seminal works of István Széchenyi (1791–1860) (Credit [Hitel, 1830], The World, or Enlightening Fragments for the Correction of Error and Prejudice [Világ, avagy felvilágosító töredékek hiba ’s előítélet eligazítására, 1831], and Stage [Stadium, 1833]).

We must therefore pose the critical question: did continuity or rupture occur at the beginning of the 19th century, as the authors of the Bibliotheca Studiorum Litterarium rightly (Debreczeni 1996) emphasized? The beginning and end of the Enlightenment must be located between the age of absolutism and the Reform Era – an interval that brought about the emergence of an independent national idea, the strengthening of the role of the Hungarian language, and ultimately the aspiration for freedom. When this is considered alongside the aim of the present study, it becomes clear that the natural sciences – within them, specifically the Earth sciences – will define the context in which the materials under investigation must be discussed. From this perspective, it is evident that the early phase of the Hungarian Enlightenment does not coincide with the predominantly French “cold rationalism,” nor does it lie on the same temporal plane as the aspirations of Romanticism and the Reform Era. In my view, the research boundaries may be defined by the issuance of a decree, which never acquired the force of law but was published in an expanded edition in 1806 (Ratio Educationis Publicae totiusque Rei Literariae per Regnum Hungariae et Provincias eidem adnexas), and by the establishment of an institution, i. e. the Section of Natural Sciences of the Hungarian Academy of Science (Magyar Tudományos Akadémia Természettudományi Osztálya).

In 1777, Maria Theresa’s educational decrees were issued under the title Ratio Educationis totiusque Rei Literariae per Regnum Hungariae et Provincias eidem adnexas, commonly referred to as the Ratio Educationis. This document included the introduction of mineralogy as a subject within the “natural history triad” integrated into the Hungarian educational system.

In 1777, the Ratio Educationis mandated the writing of (Latin-language) textbooks for the newly introduced subjects as well; thus, this year can rightly be considered the starting point for the goals outlined in the study. The closing date of the research is not 1825, the founding of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences, but rather 1830, when its Section of Natural Sciences was opened (Papp 2002). Within this framework, mineralogy also found its place. This, in turn, influenced the thematic focus of published books, even if initially they were not necessarily aimed specifically at children.

Ultimately, the early days of Hungarian Earth sciences lie between 1777 and 1830. During this time, generations could grow up for whom an accessible field, previously nonexistent in Hungary, was available from the very beginning: mineralogy, spanning from basic literacy and early engagement to the academic level.

Methods: Limitations and Possibilities

In the course of the present research, I encountered numerous limitations that complicated the preparation of this study. One of the most significant challenges was the acquisition of relevant books. Understandably, for preservation reasons these works require special handling, in addition to being genuine rarities. Unfortunately, the level of digitization in Hungary still lags behind that of many Western European countries and institutions relative to their capabilities; nevertheless, the need for development in this area is also articulated as a request within the present work. Another recurring issue lay in incomplete or inaccurate bibliographic catalogues, as I repeatedly encountered entries that ultimately proved irrelevant to this study because their dates of publication differed from those cited in key references, or because their thematic descriptions and classifications were erroneous. A further gap is that the original-language metadata of works translated into Hungarian cannot be found in the databases of collections – nor, characteristically for the period, within the translations themselves – making faithful identification in many cases a task requiring enormous effort. Nevertheless, my main sources included the works of Drescher (1986), Fehér (2000), Papp (2002), Pukánszky (2005), Gazda (2011), Kázmér (2015), and Móra and Próder (2015).

The present study highlights the necessity of promoting the digital accessibility of book rarities that form part of our national heritage, both to enhance their research potential and to broaden their dissemination. In doing so, I believe that alongside effective preservation, a deeper understanding and wider recognition of the history of Hungarian mineralogy can be achieved. In light of these considerations, the present work lists exclusively those publications from the period under discussion that appeared in Hungarian and that were partially or wholly accessible to children, requiring relatively little prior knowledge, while deliberately excluding school textbooks due to their didactic nature. Furthermore, in addressing a broader future readership, it is essential – alongside this English-language publication – to provide the original Hungarian titles of the works discussed, which will greatly facilitate subsequent searches.

The (sensu lato) mineralogical bibliography of the Enlightenment period – organized in this study, for reasons of simplicity, according to the reign of individual monarchs –
can never be complete. It is difficult to confine and define precisely what constitutes a children’s book, especially from a distance of nearly a quarter of a millennium. Accordingly, the expansion of this corpus may serve as an expected objective for future generations.

Age of Maria Theresa (1740–1780), the Initiator of Mineralogy Education

Within the time frame of the present research, during the reign of Maria Theresa, the already mentioned Ratio Educationis was issued in 1777. It was compiled with the cooperation and leadership of József Ürményi (1741–1825), a royal court councillor. Although authorship was not indicated in the volume and the original German-language manuscript was lost it is currently generally accepted as Ürményi’s (1777) work.

In the Ratio Educationis, teaching of mineralogy took place as part of natural history – which was introduced into the curriculum at that time to present the “three kingdoms” of nature – and the Ratio also outlined a brief curriculum for mineralogy. Section 161 declares the role and importance of the subject, specifying what a student should know regarding the topic of our research: “Wherever he may go, he should recognize the treasures of nature, especially those belonging to the mineral realm, and, perceiving their true purpose, be able to value what was formerly—through lack of knowledge and failure of recognition—trampled underfoot.” (Mészáros 1981, 126). The decree of 1806 goes even further, stating in Section 84: “Those preparing to acquire eloquence [that is, students of the gymnasium classes] must therefore be emphatically encouraged to study nature.” (Mészáros 1981, 260).

All this demonstrates that fostering a love of minerals and deepening their understanding was to be prescribed in schools, which would then generate later interest and might even find fulfilment in mineralogical works intended for children. It should be noted that the empress’s husband, Francis I (I. Ferenc, 1708–1765), had a very positive attitude toward science; his collection and patronage laid the foundation for what would later become the Natural History Museum in Vienna (Naturhistorisches Museum Wien). From the period under study, we came across a work that is particularly relevant to us. In 1778, József Sófalvi (1745–1794), a professor of Reformed theology, translated and published in Kolozsvár, Transylvania (now Cluj-Napoca in Romania) the volume Conversations on the Beauty of Nature (A’ természet szépségéről való beszéllgetések) (Fig. 1), which had originally appeared in 1750 under the title Unterredungen über die Schönheit der Natur by the Swiss philosopher Johann Georg Sulzer (1720–1779).

In Sófalvi’s translation (Sulzer 1778), the following relevant passages should be highlighted, as the work, although only tangentially, is organically connected to our research: “The Kingdom of Plants is evidently sustained by various kinds of minerals, namely earth, salt, stones, and other such substances.” (Sulzer 1778, 91). The author – and the translator – go further and formulate the following principle: “If plants did not in turn exist, animals could not survive.” (Sulzer 1778, 91). In the Fourth Conversation, we find another relevant passage that may have provided additional information to readers of the time: “Many other minerals, that is, things belonging to the Kingdom of Stones, possess highly remarkable properties, not less wondrous.” (Sulzer 1778, 147). Examples are then given, such as the properties of gold: “…it can be made into thin sheets or into a paper-like form, and likewise its constancy in fire without undergoing any change.” (Sulzer 1778, 147). From all this we may conclude that the instruction of readers was a firm objective in the age of the Enlightenment.

Age of Joseph II (1780–1790), who Devoted Himself Entirely to the Public Good

After the death of Maria Theresa, Joseph II ascended to the Hungarian throne. He was nicknamed “the King in the Hat” – because he refused to be crowned as he did not want the customary mandatory coronation oath to restrict him in implementing his future reform plans. He set economic policy goals that served the enrichment of the state treasury that formed a part of the Court Chamber (Hofkammer), the central financial and economical authority. His rule was marked by enlightened absolutism, in which, alongside the curtailment of privileges of the nobility the aim was to raise the lower social classes. All this is well reflected in the inscription on his equestrian statue in front of the Hofburg: “Josepho secundo, qui Saluti Publicae vixit, non diu, sed totus.” that is, “To Joseph II, who lived for the public good–not long, but entirely.”

A significant Hungarian-language educational work from the era of Joseph II is associated with the name of the French governess and novelist Jeanne-Marie Leprince de Beaumont (1711–1780), who made use of the world of fairy tales to promote moral education. The distinguished author advocated women’s equality and beyond her pedagogical activity, was a defining figure in children’s literature and folklore. In this spirit she wrote Magasin des enfants (1756) (Children’s Magazine), which consists of dialogues between the governess and the children. In this four-volume work, the scientific background of the period also appears. It was translated into Hungarian in 1781 by János Derzsi (Der’si Ö.) (?–?) and Sámuel Tordai (1731–1801) and published under the following title: A Treasury Trove of Knowledge for Little Children, Prepared in French by Marie Beaumont for the Formation of Their Hearts and the Enlightenment of Their Minds (Kisdedek’ Tudománnyal tellyes Tárháza, melly azoknak sziveknek formáltatásokra, értelmeknek meg-világositatásokra készitetett frantzia nyelven Beaumont Mária által) (Fig. 2).

The passage relevant to us can be found in the 15th conversation of the second volume. Unfortunately, the translators rendered the original work in a rather free manner, so it is necessary to point out the essential differences. In the French work, the governess Mademoiselle Bonne states the following: “A physicist, then, is a person who knows the nature of air, fire, water, and earth; who also has knowledge of trees, plants, flowers, minerals, and metals; and ladies can learn all of this as well.” (Beaumont 1756, 413–414). In the original, the relevant expression appears as “les minéraux, & les métaux” whereas our translators rendered it as: “Likewise the bodies of humans and irrational animals, trees, plants, flowers, and the species of ores that grow in the earth.” (Beaumont 1781, 114). We can see that the word “mineral” does not appear at all in the translation by Derzsi and Tordai, which can be explained by the fact that this term was not yet used in Hungarian at the time as the equivalent of “mineral.” This would only occur from 1783 onward, with the publication of Hungarian Book-House (Magyar Könyv-Ház, 1783) (Fig. 3) by the Jesuit monk and writer János Molnár (1728–1804) (Oláh 2026).

Finally, one of Beaumont’s fictional pupils, Lady Charlotte, asked the question: “Qu’est-ce que les minéraux & les métaux?” (Beaumont 1756, 414), that is, “What are minerals and metals?”, whereas in the Hungarian translation this was published as: “Hát mitsodák az értz-nemek?” (“And what, then, are the species of ores?”) (Beaumont 1781, 114). In the 1756 edition, the answer is: “L’or, l’argent, le cuivre, & les autres choses qui viennent dans la terre.” (Beaumont 1756, 414) the Hungarian translation of which was already appropriate: “Gold, silver, copper, tin, and other things that grow in the earth.” (Beaumont 1781, 114). The curiosity of another pupil, Lady Mary, of course did not leave her governess in peace, and the child addressed the following question to her: “Est-ce que l’or vient de la terre?” (Beaumont 1756, 414), which appeared in the Hungarian of the Enlightenment period as: “Hát az arany a’ földbe terem-é?” (“Does gold grow in the earth?”) (Beaumont 1781, 115), to which the answer was: “Oui, ma chère, mais nous avons assez parlé de phisique aujourd’hui.” (Beaumont 1756, 414) rendered in the 1781 edition as: “It does indeed grow in the earth. But we have already spoken enough today about natural science.” (Beaumont 1781, 115). Thus ended the 1781 Hungarian edition of one of the earliest children’s books to mention minerals.

Age of Leopold II (1790–1792), the Prudent Reform Politician

In Hungarian history, despite his short reign, Leopold II (II. Lipót, 1747–1792) is remembered for numerous achievements. Through skillful political concessions, he succeeded in winning over the Hungarian nobility, which had shown some resistance to the enlightened absolutist power ambitions of Joseph II. His name is associated with Act XVI of 1790–1791, which declared that the Hungarian language could be used in the administration of public affairs, and further mandated the appointment of separate teachers in secondary schools and higher education to strengthen the teaching of Hungarian. Through these efforts, he promoted the publication of additional Hungarian-language volumes, thereby addressing a broader readership–an important milestone in our current research.

In this study, we must also highlight the role of Georg Christian Raff (1748–1788), a writer and pedagogue who was a pioneer of German children’s and young adult literature. Among other accomplishments, his name is associated with the renewal of the teaching principles of natural history. His dialogic writings quickly gained great popularity. In 1783, his work Geographie für Kinder (Geography for Children) (published in Hungarian as Raff György geografiája a’ gyengébbek elméjekhez alkalmaztatott, és magyarúl ki-adattatott [1791]) (Fig. 4). The Hungarian translation – and partial adaptation – of the original edition was prepared anonymously by Sámuel Sebők (1760–1830?), pastor and writer. In this work, alongside geographical descriptions of the countries of Europe, we occasionally encounter brief references to minerals. An example is the following description of Germany: “Marble, alabaster, and for the most part all kinds of precious stones are also found in the mines” (Raff 1791, 82), while of Portugal we learn the following: “Likewise diamonds, pepper, and other goods of nature are carried from here to foreign countries.” (Raff 1791, 18). However, in the introduction we also find explanations of several concepts, among which one particularly relevant to us is formulated by the author in Sebők’s translation as follows: “If the mountains are dug so deeply that one may go two or three thousand paces into the cavities excavated beneath the earth, such underground vaults are called ore mines … Those people who carry out from the mines the ore-bearing stones in which gold, silver, copper, lead, or iron are found are called miners.” (Raff 1791, 8–9). It is thanks to these industrious miners – and to the further works written as a result of their labor – that by the second half of the 19th century our country had produced so many distinguished experts in the Earth sciences.

Age of Francis I (1792–1835), the Leader of the Opponent to the Enlightenment

In 1792, after ascending the throne, Francis I immediately began the armed intervention against revolutionary France that had already been planned by his father. It should be noted here that Francis I (1708–1765), King of Hungary is not to be confused with the previously mentioned Francis I, Holy Roman Emperor, husband of Empress Maria Theresa. The new king, crowned in 1792, was the grandson of the aforementioned empress. His governmental absolutism was coupled with strict conservatism; thus, resistance to the Enlightenment was characteristic of feudal imperial ambitions. In connection with our topic, it is important to note that, through Act VII of 1792, he declared that the Hungarian language should be introduced as a regular school subject. In our view, this contributed not only to the strengthening the position of our mother tongue but also to the increase in the number of volumes published in Hungarian. As a result, an increasing number of works written in the native language began to appear among those who spoke only Hungarian. This too, contributed to the gradual and definitive displacement of Latin- and German-language books from this field of study. Compared to previous rulers, Francis I’s reign was long, and its end extends beyond the chronological limits of the present research. During the period under discussion, the number of children’s book containing mineralogical information as well increased significantly.

In the year of the death of Lipót II and the accession to the throne of Ferenc I, that is, in 1792, one of the important volumes of the Hungarian Enlightenment was published: Természet históriája (Natural History) (Fig. 5), prepared “for the pleasure of weaker minds” by István Gáti (Gáty) (1749–1843), pastor, specialist writer and teacher. The volume is not only significant in terms of the period it covers, but also in Hungarian literature of natural history, as it is the first volume written by a Hungarian author in Hungarian that includes a whole section on mineralogy in verse form and is aimed at children. In the 32-page work, the author devotes eight pages to presenting the inanimate world. In the preface to his work, Gáti describes his goals for children as follows: “It would be very helpful if, through normal thinking about the things presented here, children could be trained in pure imagination at an early age.” (Gáti 1792, 3). The author went further in his recommendation: “Perhaps it would be useful for the appreciation of our country’s gifts [from Nature] if this science, which we have so far only learned from foreigners, was also taught in village schools.” (Gáti 1792, 3). The information found in bibliographical databases ‘sine nomine’, i.e., without a publisher, is not true, as the author himself reports: “I prepared this only for those who belong to me, and in order to correct the errors in the writing, I published it. … I have this little work with more detailed notes … but I have neither the will nor the means to publish it.” (Gáti 1792, 4), so we can see that the volume was published by the author. The author introduced his work for children with the following argument: “Question: What is the first duty of a wise man? Answer: To know God and himself. / Question: From what can God be known? Answer: From the works of nature and from the Bible. / Question: What do you mean by the works of nature? Answer: All visible things that are on Earth and in Heaven.” (Gáti 1792, 5). This line of thought reflects the emergence of Enlightenment ideas, in which Gáti wrote this work, which is important for our research. The late 18th-century illustration found in the introduction to Gáti’s (1792) work also clearly shows man’s place in the created world, thus indicating the contemporary view of natural history (Fig. 6).

Alongside Hungarian authors of the early 19th century, one has to mention the work of the Prussian field chaplain Georg Wilhelm Mundt (1769–?), titled Burgheim unter seinen Kindern. Neue Gespräche und Erzählungen für Kinder von acht bis sechszehn Jahren über Natur und Menschenleben, first published according to the earliest dating in 1798, was translated by András Gál (1764–1812). It appeared in Kassa (now Košice in Slovakia) in 1802 under the following title: Burghaim [Hungarianized form] a’ maga Gyermekei között. Új együtt való Beszélgetések, a’ természeti és az emberi életre tartozó némelly dolgokról (Burghaim Among His Children: New Conversations on Certain Matters Concerning Natural and Human Life) (Mundt 1802). Unfortunately, we do not find in it mineralogy-related details – despite the fact that Gál himself expanded the original work. During the Enlightenment, the Church still exerted a very strong influence on the sciences, but this influence was already waning during this period. Humanity stood on the threshold of a renewal, and with it, the relationship between the Church and the sciences. Szabóné Kozma (2023, 64), referring to Pukászky (2005), describes this pedagogical shift as follows: “At the turn of the 18th and 19th centuries, the emphasis shifted to intellectual education, which was a sharp departure from the religiously oriented education of the 16th and 17th centuries. The earlier image of the imperfect, uncivilized child remained, but the way out of this state was no longer religion and piety (Frömmigkeit), but education.”

In 1795 Gáti published another volume of The Natural History, Presenting the Three Kingdoms of Minerals, Plants, and Animals, with Their Distinguishing Marks, Natures, Uses, and Habitats, Arranged and Adapted to Weak Minds, Published in Hungarian (A’ Természet Históriája, mellyben az Ásványoknak, Plántáknak és Állatoknak három világát azoknak meg-esmértető béllyegeivel, természetekkel, hasznokkal, hazájokkal, Rendbe-szedve és a’ gyenge Elmékhez alkalmaztatva, mind egygyütt Magyar Nyelven botsátja-ki), in the preface of which he listed the rich number of species known from nature, though unfortunately he did not mention minerals there. As the reason for his publication, however, the author formulated the following: “I only wish to give my Nation, unacquainted with this science, a taste of it, and I shall consider myself sufficiently rewarded if I achieve this.” (Gáti 1795, III). The author went even further, which makes it easier for us to define the scope of our research: “I have in many places derived the classification from their [plants, animals and minerals] practical uses, since I did not consider what is elegant in the school, but rather what is useful in life.” (Gáti 1795, IV), for “In the kingdom of Nature … your weapons and household tools are provided by its ores, and your adornment by its precious stones.” (Gáti 1795, VII). His work may be regarded as the first Hungarian volume of natural history, which “treated the world of minerals in a very sketchy manner, yet in flavorful Hungarian.” (Papp 2002, 81). Gáti summarized in the preface the part of his work most relevant for us as follows: “In the world of Minerals, I have outlined the fundamentals of the mining science that distributes rich bread, and in many places I have stated the regular price of the rarer precious stones.” (Gáti 1795, IX).

Due to limitations of length, the volume cannot be presented in full, but it must be emphasized that the author divided the “three kingdoms” into three sections and, in his first book, set as his aim the presentation of “the lifeless Mineral world” in question-and-answer form. The first question reads: “In natural history, which is the most ignoble World?”
Answer: “The lifeless and insentient Mineral world, in which bodies lie upon the surface of the earth and in its womb.” (Gáti 1795, 2). The volume was divided into books, and these into parts, in which the reader finds, across 44 pages, the discussion of minerals under these headings: “On Earths”, “On Fluids”, “On Ores” and “On Stones.”

In the same year, the volume Conversations About Nature (A természetről való beszélgetések), translated into Hungarian in Nagyszeben (now Sibiu in Romania), was published; it is significant, though its original authorship remains uncertain. The Magyarized author’s name Schultz Kristián may stand for the German physician and natural scientist Christian Friedrich Schulze, although the work in question does not appear in his list of publications. Therefore, further research in this direction is required (Schultz 1795).

In 1799, József Fábián (1762–1825) translated Georg Christian Raff’s 1781 work Naturgeschichte für Kinder under the Hungarian title Természetihistoria a’ gyermekeknek (Natural History for Children) (Fig. 7), which later went through several editions. In this volume, following the 1735 classification system of the Swedish natural scientist Carolus Linnaeus (Carl Linné) (1707–1778), a separate chapter discusses the inanimate world under the title “The Kingdom of Minerals” (Linnaeus 1735). The work that Fábián took on was the first volume translated into Hungarian specifically for children that also included a section on mineralogy, and its significance in the history of science must be emphasized. Fábián introduced the relevant chapter as follows: “The Kingdom of Minerals comprises all those bodies which grow but do not live, and cannot move from one place to another, such as stones, soils, salts, and minerals.” (Raff 1799, 641). The book also includes an index and fourteen appended plates, though unfortunately none with mineralogical relevance. At the same time, the fact that only 29 of the 669 pages deal with the topic relevant to us clearly illustrates how mineralogy took a back seat during the Age of Enlightenment.

Following this example, in 1801, János Földi (1755–1801), a physician and naturalist, published his significant work titled Natural History According to Linnaeus’s System (Természeti história – A’ Linné Systémája szerént) (Földi 1801). Unfortunately, due to the author’s death, the volume remained incomplete; the treatment of animals was not followed by further sections, and thus none on mineralogy. Similarly, in 1803 József Szent-Györgyi (1765–1832), also a physician and naturalist, published A’ leg-nevezetesebb természeti dolgok’ esméreti (Knowledge of the Most Notable Natural Things) (Szent-Györgyi 1803), but like Földi, he did not continue the work, and it too remained without a mineralogical section.

Starting in 1792, the patron and publisher Friedrich Johann Justin Bertuch (1747–1822) began publishing his German-language series, Bilderbuch für Kinder. This monumental undertaking, published in monthly instalments and eventually comprising twelve volumes, introduced readers to the worlds of animals, plants, art, history, culture, and minerals. The series contained ~6,000 illustrations across 1,185 pages. At the beginning of the 19th century, the linguist and editor József Márton (1771–1840) translated it into Hungarian between 1805 and 1810 under the title Természethistóriai Képeskönyv az Ifjúság Hasznára és Gyönyörködtetésére (Illustrated Book of Natural History for the Use and Delight of Youth). This was the first mineralogy-related work for children in Hungarian to appear as a regular periodical.

A review of the volumes shows that minerals are treated rather fragmentarily. In eight of the twelve volumes (Bertuch 1807 and 1809), earth sciences appear only marginally (for example, in discussions of meteorites or fossils). Explicitly mineralogical parts appear mainly in Volume I (Fig. 8), which presents ores; Volumes V and X discuss crystal growth. The Vienna edition is noteworthy in that the same articles were published simultaneously in Latin, Hungarian, German, and French, thus reaching a broader readership. Colored copper engravings accompanied the mirror translations. Bertuch highlighted gold, silver, copper, and tin with one, two, or three illustrations each (Fig. 9). In the case of copper, “Azure Ore” and “Malachite” were named, while in the case of tin, next to the illustrations one also finds, in one instance, an approximate indication of the locality: “The form of a fine, regular Bohemian tin-granate.”; in fact the drawing shows a real garnet not a “tin garnet”, i. e. cassiterite. In No. 12 of the same volume, Bertuch continues the description of minerals, here Metals and semimetals [literally “Ores and Half-ores”] are presented. Here, based on the description and the Latin denomination, lead (though incorrectly translated as tin); iron; “Quicksilver (Hydrargyrum)”, that is mercury; “Wismuth”, that is bismuth; and “Piskoltz”, that is antimony, were illustrated with one, three, two, and one figures respectively (Fig. 10).

In the brief descriptions, the author discusses the ore minerals of each metal; for example, in the case of mercury, he mentions “Cinnabar ore”, which “occurs in ore form exclusively in combination with sulfur”, that is, the compound of mercury and sulfur, mercury sulfide, which occurs naturally as cinnabar. It should also be noted that in Volume 9, No. 28 (Bertuch 1808), under the title “Sports of Nature”, the author wrote about manganese dendrites. In presenting the “dendrites”, we find the following: “such figures as are found upon certain minerals in the very beautiful forms of trees and plants” (Bertuch 1808, 28). Bertuch also attempted to describe their formation: “The origin of these figures is still very obscure; the most plausible explanation is the following: Molten metals arise underground (especially in iron); these penetrate into the fissures of slate-like stones and by their own force and properties produce the beautiful dendritic figures.” (Bertuch 1808, 28). These works are important not only for the history of science but also for tracing changes in nomenclature.

A general educational work of the period – though published anonymously – was A’ tudományok’ rövid summája (A Short Summary of the Sciences) intended for younger schoolchildren, issued in 1806, the final year of the life of its author, the pastor Ferenc Szőke (1741–1806). Only the first volume appeared (Szőke 1806). In this work, alongside the geographical description of Hungary, the author touches upon the world of minerals in several places. In the paragraph-structured text we read: “The SECOND kind of acquiring the uncultivated things of Nature is MINING, or the CULTIVATION OF MINERALS, by which all kinds of salts, stones, and ores are brought forth from the earth, that they may afterwards be turned to use.” (Szőke 1806, 510).

The author also provides examples in the book. The taxative classification of Linnaeus (Linné) appears in Szőke’s work in connection with the transformation and usefulness of minerals, reflecting the natural scientific worldview of the period: “From the three kingdoms of Nature –
namely from Plants, Animals, and the Ore species or Minerals –
the products taken can rarely be used raw as Nature provides them; rather, men must ennoble them and prepare them by various means, so that they may become useful.”
(Szőke 1806, 511). It is important to emphasize that Szőke treated the “third kingdom” together with ores and minerals.

A milestone of natural science in the Hungarian Enlightenment is the two-volume work published in 1808 by Márton Varga (1767–1818), geographical writer and academic professor, entitled Explanation of the Science of the Beautiful Nature from Phenomena and from New Discoveries, for the Benefit of the Nation and of Youth (A’ Gyönyörü Természet’ Tudománnya magyarázata a’ Tüneményekböl, és az új feltalálásokból Nemzete, ’s az Ifjúság’ javára) (Fig. 11–12). “In its two volumes the book summarized physical and chemical knowledge for the purpose of popular education. Besides its accessibility, the book is scientifically thorough, and its chemical part is also worthy of recognition.” (Móra and Próder 2015, 5). In his work, Varga wrote about minerals in general; already in Section VIII of the first volume he discusses “The Constituent Parts of the Bodies of the Three Kingdoms of Nature”, within which Part V bears the title “On Metals”. The detailed descriptions adopt a chemical approach, although such treatment of metals and their forms of occurrence had not yet been published by a Hungarian author. As Varga (1808a, 551) writes: “Ore veins are nothing else than the fissures of rocky masses, in which other mineral bodies are most often found, differing from the mass of the mountains, and cutting through the strata of the mountains.” In the second volume (1808b) he also writes about minerals (Section IV), though more briefly; for example, in introducing the magnet, he begins: “In the kingdom of mineral bodies there is scarcely any body found that possesses more remarkable properties than the Magnet.” (Varga 1808b, 195). He further informs the reader of additional observations: “Many minerals which do not contain iron in themselves adhere to the magnet if first burnt in the fire, e.g. resin, ruby, chrysolite, tourmaline, emerald, garnet.” (Varga 1808b, 200). Varga offers an explanation at the scientific level of the time: “The cause seems to be that these are bodies mixed with some iron acid, or, as Mr. Bergman’s analysis teaches, one of their constituent parts consists of iron.” (Varga 1808b, 200).

Varga also provides further important information about Bergman or Bergmann, thus maintaining the reader’s curiosity: “That distinguished great investigator of Nature, Mr. Bergmann, also undertook the analysis of precious stones. In the diamond he found a certain earth, which he called noble earth. … In determining the constituent parts of other precious stones, such as hyacinth, ruby, Saxon topaz, emerald, sapphire, he found mostly clay earth, less calcareous earth, and also some iron.” (Varga 1808a, 530). Through this, the Hungarian readership could become acquainted with the chemical results of the Swedish chemist, Torbern Olof Bergman (1735–1784). The title page of Varga’s work is decorated by an engraving by Ferenc Karács (Karacs) (1769/1770–1838), based on a drawing by János Veis (Weisz?) (?–?), which clearly reflects the period’s interest in natural sciences (Varga 1808a and 1808b). The volume concludes with five plates and 108 drawings, though unfortunately none depicts minerals.

Without a year of publication – but listed in bibliographic catalogues and in Drescher (1986) as 180? – we mention a German-language book that also appeared in Hungarian translation. The translator is unknown; however, based on the cited German title (Erste Lehren und Bilder, oder unterhaltende Verstandesbeschäftigungen für Kinder, auch für solche, welche noch nicht lesen), the author can be identified as Johann Andreas Christian Löhr (1764–1823), theologian and educational writer. The Hungarian edition bore the title The Beginning of Instruction, or an Illustrated Book that Delights and Teaches Young Children (A’ tanítás kezdete, vagyis a kis gyermekeket gyönyörködtetve oktató képes könyv), published in Vienna by the same printer, Anton Andreas Pichler (1770–1823). German library databases give the year of publication as 1810. The original German and French editions (Löhr 1810) contained 50 copper engravings, but the extensive work has no mineralogical relevance.

Unfortunately, Ferenc Pethe’s (1763–1832) 1815 work entitled Natural History and Technology for the Needs of Teachers and Students and for the Benefit of Those Who Take Delight in It (Természet-história és Mesterségtudomány a Tanítók’ és Tanúlók’ szükségekre ’s az ebben Gyönyörködők hasznokra) despite the indication of a volume number did not continue beyond the first volume, which deals only with animals (Pethe 1815).

In 1823 László Gedeon (1768–1863), professor of mining law, published Useful Pastimes (Hasznos Múlattság), written “chiefly for the Youth”. In this work the author taught his readers in verse form – similarly to Gáti’s (1792) – from the book the relevant sections of The Sciences and the Fine Arts should be highlighted: “The Sciences, like the sun, / Serve this world; / All kinds of goods rest upon them, / As upon foundation stones; / They read within their hearts / The laws of God, / They open up / Nature’s hidden chests, / They uncover the golden bosom of the Mountains, / They cleanse from dross / The earth’s precious ores …” (Gedeon 1823, 52), and further: “They have unfolded the properties / Of herbs, trees, animals / And ores, that man / May increase his goods.” (Gedeon 1823, 54), as well as: “The Fine Arts / Always followed them closely, / They too scattered precious pearls / Upon the earth.” (Gedeon 1823, 55).

The last researched work of the period is that of János Lukáts (Lukács) (1767–1848), Professor at a Reformed College, A Short Natural History – prepared for schoolchildren and arranged according to their understanding, presented in brief questions and answers in verse form – was published by János Borosnyoi Lukáts (Rövid természeti história – alcíme: mellyet a’ tanulo gyermekek számára készített, és elméjekhez alkalmaztatva, rövid kérdésekben, és versbeli feleletekben foglalva ki adott Borosnyoi Lukáts János) (Lukáts 1837). Although Drescher (1986) dates it to 1826, bibliographic data from the National Széchényi Library (Országos Széchényi Könyvtár) indicate that it appeared in 1837; therefore, it cannot be included in the chronology and bibliography of mineralogical children’s books of the Hungarian Enlightenment.

New chronological data for the history of mineralogy in Hungary

The results of our research suggest that the current Hungarian mineralogical chronology needs to be expanded. The listed data focus on the main publication events; therefore, in the present study we rely only on the most significant bibliographical records, items, which represent the reigns of all our rulers of that era:

1778 – Publication of the first reader translated into Hungarian that mentions minerals in several places (Sulzer [transl. Sófalvi] 1778)

1781 – The first geography reader translated into Hungarian, which also contains observations related to mineralogy, has been published (Beaumont [transl. Derzsi and Tordai] 1781)

1791 – The first geography book for children translated into Hungarian, which also included sections on mineralogy, was published (Raff [transl. Sebők] 1791)

1792 – The first educational book for children – written in verse and including a section on mineralogy – by a Hungarian author and published in Hungarian (Gáti 1792).

1799 – The first natural history book translated into Hungarian and intended specifically for children was published; it included a separate chapter on mineralogy and used the term “mineral” in its modern sense (Raff [transl. Fábián] 1799)

1805 – The publication of a multi-volume work – presented in picture-book-style booklets translated into Hungarian and intended for children – that also covers mineralogy (Bertuch [transl. Márton] 1805)

1808 – Publication of the first scientific book by a Hungarian author intended also for children that includes mineralogical sections Varga 1808a and 1808b

Conclusion

In this study, we hope to have succeeded in presenting a previously unexplored area through which we may gain a deeper understanding not only of the linguistic and educational history of the late 18th and early 19th centuries, but also of our broader historical and scientific heritage. Until now, no new chronological boundaries of the Hungarian Enlightenment based on a mineralogical approach had been proposed. The temporal framework discussed here – 1777 to 1830 – can be well aligned with literary, historical, and cultural periodisations, thereby offering a different perspective on the “dynamics” of this turbulent era.

Striving for completeness – an aim which, in our view, can never be fully achieved – additional volumes may yet be added to our list, should previously unknown works come to light, or should a shift in perspective lead us to redefine certain publications, originally regarded as works of natural history or education for older readers, as children’s books with mineralogical relevance. Such changes in perspective are natural; what unites them is the ongoing search for new knowledge and its preservation for posterity.

We believe that the present work extends beyond offering an alternative interpretation of a historical context. It also contributes to a deeper understanding of the Earth sciences
– particularly mineralogy – as well as to a more comprehensive appreciation of the Hungarian Enlightenment. This research highlights elements of our national heritage which, having appeared in print, remain groundbreaking even today. As a result of this study, we propose the inclusion of seven new dates in the chronology of Hungarian mineralogy: the year of publication of the first general natural history reader translated into Hungarian – which includes sections on mineralogy (Sulzer 1778); the first translated children’s book to mention minerals in several places (Beaumont 1781); the first translated geographical work containing relevant sections (Raff 1791); the first popular Hungarian-language general work on natural history published on this topic (Gáti 1792); the first translated natural history book for children (Raff 1799); the first translated periodical for children with relevant content (Bertuch 1805); and the first Hungarian-language children’s book on natural sciences covering this topic (Varga 1808a and 1808b). In order to provide as complete and accurate a description of the period as possible, we have also examined additional relevant – and, unfortunately, sometimes less relevant – publications issued between these milestones, thereby further expanding our scientific knowledge.

In summary, this work enables us to rediscover the popular educational books for children – now largely forgotten – that once “sowed the seeds of interest” in the young readers of the era, generations of whom would later become the pioneers of 19th-century Hungarian Earth sciences.

I would like to thank my wife, Évi Oláhné Gulácsi for her endless patience with me and in my research as well as Csilla Csontos for her selfless help in translation. The author would like to express his gratitude to Gábor Papp mineralogist, senior curator, and Mátyás András Jakab historian and curator, for their careful review of this study.

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